The study procedure was the same as that used in the validation study of the ICF-CS for schizophrenia from the perspective of psychiatrists, and hence further details can be consulted in Nuño et al. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) offers a theoretical framework for assessing functioning and disability. In other words, it assumes that we humans are… Another strength of the study is that participation was possible in any of five languages, and this is likely to have been a key factor in achieving such a multicultural and multinational representation. All categories of the Activities and Participation component for which consensus was reached are listed in the ICF-CS for schizophrenia. It has a multifactorial etiology, with numerous individual variables interacting with several environmental factors [2]. However, as they are relevant to assessment and intervention planning, concepts related to Personal factors were summarized and considered in rounds two and three of the Delphi study. Muslims are critical of Western … The discipline of social psychology began in the United States in the early 20th century. Investigation, There are also two appendices, one on personality disorders and another on African perspectives on personality. The act of remembering an experience and bringing it to consciousness at a later time requires an association, which is formed from the experience, and a “retrieval cue,” which elicits the memory of the experience. Worldwide clinical guidelines consider psychological interventions to be one of the mainstays of treatment and emphasize the importance of cognitive-behavioral therapy, cognitive remediation, and family intervention [6–8]. All categories included in the Brief ICF-CS for schizophrenia were selected by 75% or more of participating experts, thus supporting the relevance of the categories that form this ICF-CS. The western view of the ‘enduring self’ refers to the notion that “you are the same person you were earlier in your life. Software, However, Eastern conceptions of human psyche in Western psychology tradition has been already introduced by preeminent figures from European psychoanalytical panorama, such as Jung (1939), Fromm et al. The publication of this book, East Asian Philosophies and Psychology: Towards Psychology of Self-cultivation, signifies an important breakthrough for the indigenization movements of psychology which have happened in many non-Western ... As Pavlov’s work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of conditioning as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the development of behaviorism. The literature also supports the idea that the brain is the main altered structure in this illness and it is considered to be the basis of other dysfunctions such as neuropsychological impairment [30]. Although Eastern and Western approaches tend to come from different perspectives, these counselors say there are benefits to be gained in session by blending them according to each client’s needs. Behavioral neuroscience has a strong history of contributing to the understanding of medical disorders, including those that fall into the realm of clinical psychology. For example, in the West, we admire the ‘self-made man’. The purpose of the current research is multifaceted. Psychodynamic theory is an approach to psychology that studies the psychological forces underlying human behavior, feelings, and emotions, and how they may relate to early childhood experience. [12] Psychological views The therapist encourages the patient to express their feelings and does not suggest how the person might wish to change. The grants financed the preparation of the materials in the five languages in which it was applied, the Qualtrics platform through which the data were collected, and the linguistic revision of the manuscript. An early associate and follower of Freud, Jung eventually disagreed with Freud on too many aspects of personality theory to remain within a strictly Freudian perspective. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217936.t001. Conceptualization, When all three parts of the personality are in dynamic equilibrium, the individual is thought to be mentally healthy. Psychological interventions also address other categories that were associated with high agreement, namely psychosocial functions (b122 Global psychosocial functions [24]), functions affected by negative symptoms (e.g., b130 Energy and drive functions and b152 Emotional functions [25,26]), and classical symptoms in schizophrenia such as delusions and hallucinations (e.g. (1960), and more recently, scholars as Stern (1997), and Safran (2003). Rather than focusing on underlying conflicts, behaviorism focuses on observable, overt behaviors that are learned from the environment. Funding: This work was supported by Spain’s Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness [grant PSI2015–67984-R], and by the Agency for the Management of University and Research Grants of the Government of Catalonia [grant 2017SGR1681]. Today many researchers believe that her illness was not psychological, as Freud suggested, but either neurological or organic. Four categories from this component that do feature in the ICF-CS for schizophrenia did not reach consensus in the Delphi study (see S4 Table). The top of the pyramid is self-actualization, in which a person is believed to have reached a state of harmony and understanding. A comprehensive framework employing a universal language that is understood by all actors could improve the implementation of care plans, leading to a common understanding and shared goals between all health professionals. Conceptualization, Key areas of focus include sensation and perception, motivated behavior (such as hunger, thirst, and sex), control of movement, learning and memory, sleep and biological rhythms, and emotion. Of these, the ambiguous categories (i.e., those selected by more than 50% but less than 75% of the expert panel) mainly belong to chapter d6 Domestic life (e.g., d640 Doing housework) or are related to employment (e.g., d855 Non-remunerative employment). However, if the ego is unable to mediate between the id and the superego, an imbalance is believed to occur in the form of psychological distress. Humanism’s major theorists were Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May, and Clark Moustakas; it was also influenced by psychoanalytic theorists, including Wilhelm Reich, who discussed an essentially good, healthy core self, and Carl Gustav Jung, who emphasized the concept of archetypes. Personality research has been focused on different aspects of the self, including traits, attitudes, beliefs, goals, and motivation. This category belongs to chapter e1 Products and Technology, and it should be noted that the ICF-CS for schizophrenia already contains four categories from the same chapter (i.e., e110 Products or substances for personal consumption, e125 Products and technology for communication, e130 Products and technology for education and e165 Assets). Social psychologists, therefore, examine the factors that lead us to behave in a given way in the presence of others, as well as the conditions under which certain behaviors, actions, and feelings occur. Following the methodology endorsed by the WHO [12], the ICF-CSs for schizophrenia have already been developed through a formal decision-making consensus process, integrating evidence from four preparatory studies and expert opinion [13]. The fields of behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology are all subfields of biological psychology. It emphasizes that people are inherently good and pays special attention to personal experiences and creativity. Yes, Psychology is a good career option as human psychology is employed everywhere around us. Found inside – Page 218Students trained in the Western tradition may wonder why we consider the Eastern thought of Buddhism and the thoughts of Confucius important in a discussion of personality theory. However, Eastern ideas about the mind developed many ... • Self refers to the totality of an individuals conscious experiences, ideas thoughts and feelings with regard to her self or him self. Once again, these categories did yield agreement of at least 75% in the Delphi study from the perspective of psychiatrists, underlining the importance of analyzing functionality from a multidisciplinary point of view. Personal traits that constitute a premorbid predisposition of individuals and which affect how they cope with their illness were considered as Personal factors, whereas personality traits that are altered due to the illness were coded under category b126 of Body functions. The humanistic perspective is a holistic psychological perspective that attributes human characteristics and actions to free will and an innate drive for self-actualization. Methodology, This is likely due to the multidisciplinary approach that was used to develop this ICF-CS, which aims to cover the main intervention targets not merely of a specific professional group (in this case, psychologists) but of all health professionals involved in the treatment of individuals with schizophrenia [11]. There are many broad personality theories, which can … This commonly occurs in new situations or with unfamiliar people; a shy person may simply opt to avoid these situations. All components of the ICF, except Personal factors, are organized hierarchically in an exhaustive list of categories (see Fig 3). Writing – review & editing, Roles We also made use of literature searches, LinkedIn contacts, and personal recommendations. Participants were sent an e-mail with a link to the survey homepage and instructions (i.e., to list all the aspects they considered to be relevant when assessing and/or treating individuals with schizophrenia). The perspective had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who studied intellectual development in children. Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder associated with impairment in functioning. From the Western perspective,despite its detailed and at time perceptive analysis ofthe emotions and the workings of the mind, it is still the conscious mind that is being discussed. The information in our unconscious affects our behavior, although we are unaware of it. The treatment of a patient referred to as Anna O. is regarded as marking the beginning of psychoanalysis. Skinner described two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, which is the introduction of a positive consequence such as food, pleasurable activities, or attention from others, and negative reinforcement, which is the removal of a negative consequence such as pain or a loud noise. Conceptualization, Further validation studies from the perspective of other professionals (i.e., nursing, occupational therapy, social work, and physiotherapy) are now needed in order to complement the present findings and to move a step closer towards a definitive version of the ICF-CS for schizophrenia. Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytic or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children’s cognitive growth. In addition to traditional topics, chapters on Eastern and religious perspectives as positive approaches to adult personality development are included. There are also two appendices, one on personality disorders and another on African perspectives on personality. And this has consequences for society, the workplace, family, even relationships. Importantly, improvement and decline in aspects of functioning can be displayed in a functioning profile over the course of treatment or over the life span. Institute for Medical Information Processing, Biometry and Epidemiology–IBE, Research Unit for Biopsychosocial Health, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU), Munich, Germany, Found inside – Page 2Asian Perspectives on the Psychology of Learning and Motivation Dennis M. McInerney, Oon Seng Tan, Gregory Arief D. ... that there are Eastern approaches to the psychology of learning and motivation that are in synchrony with Western ... Nevertheless, an evolutionary interpretation might make it difficult to understand how the commonly gradual process of forgetting was selected for. BACKGROUND. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click For each category, they were asked to indicate whether it was relevant from their perspective as a psychologist to the assessment and/or treatment of individuals with schizophrenia. Specifically, our two objectives were: 1) to identify the problems, personal characteristics/resources, and aspects of the environment that psychologists regard as most important for understanding functioning in people with schizophrenia; and 2) to analyze the extent to which the problems and aspects identified are represented in the ICF-CSs for schizophrenia. This level of agreement supports the relevance of personal factors to the assessment and treatment of individuals with schizophrenia. Three types of scans include (left to right) PET scan (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography), and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). Taken together, these results suggest that the ICF-CSs for schizophrenia provide a clinically relevant framework for organizing information about this health condition. This unique textbook eloquently introduces students to international perspectives on cross-cultural psychology (both Eastern and Western cultures), adopting a truly accessible narrative approach throughout. It should also be noted that the response rate across rounds one to three was 78%, considerably higher than the mean across rounds of 50% that is reported in the literature [46]. The ego, which has conscious and unconscious elements, is the rational and reasonable part of personality. Six clinical psychologists from six different Eastern and Western religious traditions--Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam--examine a single clinical case from their individual religious perspective. Few Western personality theories recognise religious basis of human functioning to account for the „inherent religiousness‟ of Africans. Cultural psychologist Richard Shweder argues that these factors help shape what people deem is good, moral, and virtuous. The ICF is based on a multidimensional, biopsychosocial approach (see Fig 1) and considers a patient’s functioning as a dynamic interaction between the underlying health condition and specific personal and environmental contextual factors. In the context of psychology, individual differences are relatively stable, habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion (Kassin, 2003). A basic requirement for the implementation of these ICF-CSs in clinical practice is their validation from different perspectives. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click based on previously proposed categorizations of personal factors [14,18,19] and on the experts’ responses to the question about personal factors. The goals of these interventions are manifold, with key targets being to improve psychological wellbeing and quality of life, neurocognition, and family communication. Methodology, Its role is to maintain contact with the outside world to keep the individual in touch with society, and to do this it mediates between the conflicting tendencies of the id and the superego. 1 Personality and Assessment, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; 2 Personality and Assessment, Department of Psychology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany; Compared with playfulness in infants and children, playfulness in adults is relatively under-studied. There were no statistically significant differences in age, gender, or population treated (urban, rural, acute, and chronic) between psychologists who responded in the first round and those were invited to take part but did not do so. Of the 29 categories from this component that yielded consensus in the Delphi study, only one (i.e., e135 Products and technology for employment) is not included in the ICF-CS for schizophrenia. The first published study in this area was an experiment in 1898 by Norman Triplett on the phenomenon of social facilitation. Those ICF categories and Personal factors that were reported by less than 5% of the experts (98 ICF categories and 20 personal factors) were excluded from the second round; ICF categories coded as ‘other specified’ or ‘unspecified’ at the second-level (n = 11 ICF categories) were also excluded. Karen Horney challenged Freud’s perspective on the psychology of women, only to later suggest that the issue was more directly related to the oppression of women as a minority, rather than a fundamental difference based on gender. However, these families exist in many variations around the world. The term ‘self’ refers to an individual human being, along with their body, mind, and in some cases, the concept of a ‘soul’. Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder that afflicts more than 21 million people worldwide [1]. Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and its variation among individuals; it looks at our idiosyncratic patterns of enduring, long-term characteristics. From Eastern perspectives, however, the ego is a social fiction. Eastern Implicit Wisdom Theories. • Mainstream Psychology → primarily Euro-Americoce ntric. [Google Scholar] U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Cultural psychology is often confused with cross-cultural psychology; however, it is distinct in that cross-cultural psychologists generally use culture as a means of testing the universality of psychological processes, rather than determining how local cultural practices shape psychological processes. Found inside – Page 224Eastern and Western Perspectives Peter K. Smith, Keumjoo Kwak, Yuichi Toda ... Toward a geography of personality traits: Patterns of profiles across 36 cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 13–28. Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., ... First, we build on prior research examining the replicability of the Big Five personality dimensions among a sample of European American and Asian American men. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217936.t003. In the late 1950s, a group of psychologists convened in Detroit, Michigan, to discuss their interest in a psychology that focused on uniquely human issues, such as the self, self-actualization, health, hope, love, creativity, nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning. Shyness (also called diffidence) is the feeling of apprehension, lack of comfort, or awkwardness especially when a person is around other people. The kappa coefficient for the linking process was .90 [95% CI: .88 - .92]. It was made clear that they should base their answers on their clinical experience. The content validity of the ICF-CSs for schizophrenia has already been examined and supported from the perspective of psychiatrists [14]. Of the ICF categories that were selected by at least 75% of experts in the Delphi study, 96% feature in the Comprehensive ICF-CS for schizophrenia. Resources, Thus, social psychology studies individuals in a social context and how situational variables interact to influence behavior. Found insideWestern Journal of Speech Communication, 46, 9297. Taylor, D. (1968). ... Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 116. ... In D. L. Kincaid (Ed.), Communication theory from Eastern and Western perspectives. The purpose is to achieve consensus from a panel of individuals with knowledge of the topic of interest (hereinafter, experts). Watson’s “Little Albert” experiment In Watson’s famous experiment, he taught an infant to be afraid of a fur coat, among other things, through the process of conditioning. 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