Efforts to reduce climate change through land-demanding mitigation actions aimed at removing atmospheric carbon, such as afforestation, reforestation, bioenergy crops, intensification of land management and plantation forestry can adversely affect land conditions and lead to degradation. Environ. Differences in properties related to feedstock (Bonanomi et al. Porter-Bolland, L. et al. 20181146). Minasny, B. et al. Vörösmarty, M. Grossberg, I. Gladkova, and H. Aizenman, 2016: A global empirical typology of anthropogenic drivers of environmental change in deltas. Johnson, J.M.-F., R.R. 20151367). Luke, D., K. McLaren, and B. Wilson, 2016: Modeling hurricane exposure in a Caribbean lower montane tropical wet forest: The effects of frequent, intermediate disturbances and topography on forest structural dynamics and composition. F. Crop. 2015: In situ persistence and migration of biochar carbon and its impact on native carbon emission in contrasting soils under managed temperate pastures. Holmberg, M. et al. Verhoeven, E. et al. Richards, C. and K. Lyons, 2016: The new corporate enclosures: Plantation forestry, carbon markets and the limits of financialised solutions to the climate crisis. 2015: A meta-analysis of soil erosion rates across the world. Philos. Mastrandrea, and L.L.White (eds.)]. Čuček, L., J.J. Klemeš, and Z. Kravanja, 2012: A review of footprint analysis tools for monitoring impacts on sustainability. Schepaschenko, 2015: Boreal forest health and global change. For example, studies in the Philippines by Camacho et al. 20101612; Scheffers et al. 2016: Pan-Arctic ice-wedge degradation in warming permafrost and its influence on tundra hydrology. Thus, opportunities exist for SFM to contribute to atmospheric carbon targets through reduction of deforestation and degradation, forest conservation, forest restoration, intensification of management, and enhancements of carbon stocks in forests and harvested wood products (Griscom et al. 2009649). While it is therefore currently not possible to project the area at risk of degradation from the implementation of land-based CDR, there is a clear risk that expansion of energy crops at the scale anticipated could put significant strain on land systems, biosphere integrity, freshwater supply and biogeochemical flows (Heck et al. Trans. 20141089). However, many existing scientific and locally-based approaches, including the use of indigenous and local knowledge, can assess different aspects of land degradation or provide proxies. Blackwell Science Ltd, Malden, USA. Section 4.2.3.1 outlines the potential direct linkages of climate change on land degradation based on current theoretical understanding of land degradation processes and drivers. 2014256), with potentially large impacts on downstream areas. 2016: Going where no grains have gone before: From early to mid-succession. Sabloff, 2012: Classic Period collapse of the Central Maya Lowlands: Insights about human–environment relationships for sustainability. and M.J. Kirkby, 2003: Application of salinization indicators and initial development of potential global soil salinization scenario under climatic change. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. 2013622) (Cross-Chapter Box 3 in Chapter 2, and Chapter 2). van Gestel, N. et al. 2018881), as well as low evidence quantifying the role of wild foods and forests (and, by extension, forest degradation) in both the global food basket and in supporting household-scale food security (Bharucha and Pretty 2010882; Hickey et al. J. 2012961; Fargione et al. 20131252). Pinty, B. et al. Maintaining and increasing forest area, in particular native forests rather than monoculture and short-rotation plantations, contributes to the maintenance of global forest carbon stocks (Lewis et al. Science, 353, 72–74, doi:10.1126/science.aaf4610. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Zölch, T., J. Maderspacher, C. Wamsler, and S. Pauleit, 2016: Using green infrastructure for urban climate-proofing: An evaluation of heat mitigation measures at the micro-scale. 201548) but links to land degradation were, to a large extent, missing. 2015116; Gabrielsson et al. Edmondson, J.L., Z.G. 2014576). Although it could be possible to source this biomass more sustainably, the ecosystem and health impacts of this increased demand for cooking fuel would be reduced through use of other renewable fuels or, in some cases, non-renewable fuels (LPG), as well as through improved efficiency in end-use and through better resource and supply chain management (Santos et al. Davidson and M. Gross, (eds.)]. 20161078; Law et al. Sprunger, C.D., S.W. Fuso Nerini, F., C. Ray, and Y. Boulkaid, 2017: The cost of cooking a meal. Lett., 31, L04501, doi:10.1029/2003GL018680. 17.1 Significance of Soil Erosion and Land Degradation 819. Nature, 430, 768–772, doi:10.1038/nature02771. Biol. Heumann, 2009: Disentangling the effects of climate and people on Sahel vegetation dynamics. Agric. J. Agric. Meyfroidt, P. and E.F. Lambin, 2011: Global Forest Transition: Prospects for an End to Deforestation. 2016286). Ecol., 25, 271–282, doi:10.1111/rec.12415. 2012326; Mullan 2013327). 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In this chapter, we use the terms ‘processes’ and ‘drivers’ with the following meanings: Processes of land degradation are those direct mechanisms by which land is degraded and are similar to the notion of ‘direct drivers’ in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005135). 2. Soil Sci. 20061343; Xu et al. B Biol. Ferrell, and J.F. 2016200; Peng et al. Thompson, I., B. Mackey, S. McNulty, and A. Mosseler, 2009: Forest resilience, biodiversity, and climate change. 2017654; Tessler et al. Based on measurements of soil carbon accumulation in restored grasslands in this part of the USA, the net carbon accumulation in stable organic matter under a perennial grain crop might be expected to sequester 30–50 gC m–2 yr–1 (Post and Kwon 20001302) until a new equilibrium is reached. The complex choices of climate change and disaster migrants in Shishmaref, Alaska and Nanumea, Tuvalu. 20131107; Lewis et al. 2016: The National Wind Erosion Research Network: Building a standardized long-term data resource for aeolian research, modeling and land management. J. Environ. J. Bai, Z.G., D.L. Energy Environ., 7, e275, doi:10.1002/wene.275. 20151416). 2007: Quantifying the biodiversity value of tropical primary, secondary, and plantation forests. Ecol. Urbanisation combined with population growth has led to continuously increasing charcoal production. Park, 2015: Forest Restoration and Rehabilitation in the Republic of Korea. It might differ depending on the region where the land and soil is. In this regard, it is increasingly recognised that those suffering from, and being vulnerable to, land degradation and. Virapongse, A., B.A. Land use policy, 50, 408–421, doi:10.1016/J.LANDUSEPOL.2015.09.033. Bioscience, 44, 300–304, doi:10.2307/1312379. 2015513; Kurz et al. (2014)834). The top two photos are taken in the early 1970s, before and after restoration, the third photo about five years after restoration, and the bottom photo was taken about 20 years after restoration. Lett., 12, 930–941, doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01352.x. et al. Proc. Byers, B.G. Khan, 2012: Vulnerability of the Indus Delta to Climate Change in Pakistan. Geomorphology, 324, 1–13, doi:10.1016/J.GEOMORPH.2018.09.007. However, the causes of reductions in canopy cover or carbon stocks can be many (Curtis et al. Cropland soils have lost 20–60% of their organic carbon content prior to cultivation, and soils under conventional agriculture continue to be a source of GHGs (medium confidence). Meteorol., 57, 221–240, doi:10.1016/0168-1923(91)90088-8. Nat. After providing definitions and the context (Section 4.1) we proceed with a theoretical explanation of the different processes of land degradation and how they are related to climate and to climate change, where possible (Section 4.2). IUCN, 2003: Environmental Degradation And Impacts On Livelihood: Sea Intrusion – A Case Study. Morris, J. Liu, and J. Holden, 2018a: PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis. Conversely, some studies show increased turnover of native soil carbon (‘positive priming’) due to enhanced soil microbial activity induced by biochar. J. Biodivers. We see deforestation has played a major role in South America. Pendergrass, A.G., 2018: What precipitation is extreme? The bbc.com resource listed outlines some further causes of erosion and land degradation in the US, especially on cropland, and in specific States like Iowa. et al. Cooper, and G. Pétursdóttir, 2014: Challenges and opportunities in climate change adaptation for communities in Europe’s northern periphery. Land use policy, 47, 253–261, doi:10.1016/J.LANDUSEPOL.2015.04.017. Lett., 20, 1414–1426, doi:10.1111/ele.12849. Sustain. Palik, 2016: Long-term impacts of variable retention harvesting on ground-layer plant communities in Pinus resinosa forests. Ecol., 48, 1125–1134, doi:10.1111/ Chapter 4 Land degradation 410 j.1365-2664.2011.02021.x. 2017683). Bot., 101, 1801–1819, doi:10.3732/ajb.1400084. Agric. Ecol. 20151623; Abatzoglou and Williams 20161624; Taufik et al. For. Water quality has also been adversely affected, with salinity fluctuating over time, but in recent years reaching a maximum of 340 g L–1 (similar to levels in the Dead Sea). 2011817). 20171538). Nat. Lett., 12, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa6884. Resilience as an analytical lens is particularly strong in ecology and related research on natural resource management (Folke et al. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Bonn, Germany, 103 pp. Lett., doi:10.1111/conl.12216. Forest certification schemes have been used to document SFM outcomes (Rametsteiner and Simula 200385) by assessing a set of criteria and indicators (e.g., Lindenmayer et al. The risk that biochar may enhance polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) in soil or sediments has been raised (Quilliam et al. Remote Sens. Nat. Ter-Mikaelian, M.T., S.J. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. Among these, SOM directly and indirectly drives the majority of soil functions. Xu, 2013: Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, S.A. Levin, Academic Press, Waltham, MA, ed. Proc. stream 181–202. Lindenmayer,  D.B.,  C.R. 2015: Plant-biochar interactions drive the negative priming of soil organic carbon in an annual ryegrass field system. Recognition of adverse biodiversity impacts of high-yield forestry is leading to modified management aimed at increasing habitat availability through, for example, variable retention logging and continuous cover management (Roberts et al. Plant Ecol., 213, 1413–1424, doi:10.1007/s11258-012-0100-y. 2017: Exploring future changes in land use and land condition and the impacts on food, water, climate change and biodiversity: Scenarios for the Global Land Outlook. New Phytol., 195, 172–181, doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04150.x. The relationship and hierarchy of resilience with respect to vulnerability and adaptive capacity are also debated, with different perspectives between disaster management and global change communities, (e.g., Cutter et al. Based on remotely sensed data, a sharp decline in the mangrove area was also found in the arid coastal region of Hormozgan province in southern Iran during 1972, 1987 and 1997 (Etemadi et al. Profiling risk and sustainability in coastal deltas of the world. Hermansen, and T. Dalgaard, 2019: Targeted grassland production – A Danish case study on multiple benefits from converting cereal to grasslands for green biorefinery. Masolwa, S. Ruvuga, and F.M. Zahawi, R.A., G. Duran, and U. Kormann, 2015: Sixty-seven years of land-use change in Southern Costa Rica. 2011171). Near-surface wind speeds over land areas have decreased in recent decades (McVicar and Roderick 2010293), partly as a result of changing surface roughness (Vautard et al. U.S.A., 113, 892–897, doi:10.1073/pnas.1516525113. While human interventions in coastal areas (e.g., expansion of shrimp farms) and rivers (e.g., upstream dams cutting coastal sediment supply), and economic activities causing land subsidence (Keogh and Törnqvist 2019154; Allison et al. Glob. Murphy, J.M. 2018525; Meyfroidt and Lambin 2011526). Projections of the impacts on global coastlines are inconclusive, with some projections suggesting that 20% to 90% (depending on sea level rise scenario) of present day wetlands will disappear during the 21st century (Spencer et al. et al. Salinisation, although perceived and reported in soils, is typically triggered by water table-level rises, driving salts to the surface under dry to sub-humid climates (Schofield and Kirkby 2003165). 2013989). For example, the sale of fruits of M. flexuosa in some parts of the western Amazon constitutes as much as 80% of the winter income of many rural households, but information on trade values and value chains of M. flexuosa is still sparse (Sousa et al. A Math. Implementation of SLM practices has been shown to increase the productivity of land (Branca et al. For example, 50% ground cover (living and dead plant material and biological crusts) is a recognised threshold for dryland grazing systems (e.g., Tighe et al. Chen, Z. et al. In addition to people moving away from an area due to ‘lost’ livelihood activities, climate-related land degradation can also reduce the availability of livelihood safety nets – environmental assets that people use during times of shocks or stress. Hatulesila, and A.B. Landsc. Ebi, Y.O. 2014808). Regarding global loss of carbon stored in the mangrove due to deforestation, four countries exhibited high levels of loss: Indonesia (3410 GgCO2 yr–1), Malaysia (1288 GgCO2 yr–1), US (206 GgCO2 yr–1) and Brazil (186 GgCO2 yr–1). Agric. Cowie, and R.J. Smernik, 2012: Biochar carbon stability in a clayey soil as a function of feedstock and pyrolysis temperature. 20141377). 2018: National scale assessment of total trihalomethanes in Irish drinking water. (2016)1006, studied agroforestry adoption over many years in South India and found that, overall, only 18% of the households adopted agroforestry. Ecol. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. DeHaan, L.R. Alkemade, R. et al. Hoffman, 2010: Thicket expansion in a South African savanna under divergent land use: Local vs. global drivers? U.S.A., 111, 3268–3273, doi:10.1073/pnas.1222463110. Sohoo, 2017: Seasonal variation of oceanographic processes in Indus River estuary. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. For., 113, 57–68, doi:10.5849/jof.14-016. Franklin, 1990: Effects on carbon storage of conversion of old-growth forests to young forests. Keenan et al. Drying of wetlands reduces CH4 emissions (Turetsky et al. A meta-analysis. Clim., 23, 97–112, doi:10.1175/2009JCLI3102.1. Manag., 66, 493–511, doi:10.2111/REM-D-12-00068.1. Natl. It is, however, hard to make generalisations about how important income derived from the natural resource base is for rural livelihoods in the developing world (Angelsen et al. Restor. Polit. Lett., 7(5), 771–774, doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0260. (2015)1645. 20181385; Ojanen et al. Reports, 1, 30–39, doi:10.1007/s40641-015-0002-x. The presence of open-access, quality controlled and continuously updated global databases of remote sensing data is invaluable, and is the only method for consistent monitoring of large areas over several decades (Sedano et al. Despite these teleconnections, farmers living in poverty in developing countries will be especially vulnerable due to their exposure, dependence on the environment for income and limited options to engage in other ways to make a living (Rosenzweig and Hillel 1998865). Ann. Chang. Xu, J., R. Yin, Z. Li, and C. Liu, 2006: China’s ecological rehabilitation: Unprecedented efforts, dramatic impacts, and requisite policies. Similarly, natural flood management and ecosystem-based approaches of providing space for water, renaturalising rivers and reducing surface runoff through the presence of permeable surfaces and vegetated features (including walls and roofs) can manage flood risks, impacts and vulnerability (e.g., Gill et al. Ratcliffe, S. et al. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA, 57 pp. Hendry, D. Murdiyarso, and L.V. Viger, M., R.D. 20141564; Cooper and Pile 20141565; Bush 20041566). Similarly, the combined pressure of water limitations and frequent fire can lead to transition from closed forest to savannah or grassland: if fire is too frequent, trees do not reach reproductive maturity and post-fire regeneration will fail; likewise, reduced rainfall/increased drought prevents successful forest regeneration (Reyer et al. Knorr, W., L. Jiang, and A. Arneth, 2016: Climate, CO2 and human population impacts on global wildfire emissions. Environ. Wind erosion is another factor that needs to be taken into account in the modelling of soil erosion (Webb et al. Trends Ecol. But, also pasture land that has been overgrazed, – Agriculture’s contribution to the economy, and the economic contribution of other industries that rely on land and soil, – Humans’ health and well being, in the instance where contaminated soil leaches into water supplies. 17.2 On-Site and Off-Site impacts of Accelerated Soil Erosion 825. est.7b01427. Policy 59, 2016, 53–57). Håkansson, N.T., and M. Widgren, 2007: Labour and landscapes: The political economy of landesque capital in nineteenth century Tanganyika. Osland, M.J. et al. Sustain., 10, 856, doi:10.3390/su10030856. Harris, A. Tyukavina, and M.C. Geoph. Gliessman, 1991: Raised field agriculture in Tlaxcala, Mexico: An ecosystem perspective on maintenance of soil fertility. A synthesis report for the GEF. Young, A., 1995: Agroforestry for Soil Conservation. 2010: Climate change and bark beetles of the western United States and Canada: Direct and indirect effects. et al. 2000, p. 194). Bierwagen, and J.S. There is limited evidence of a slow northward migration of the boreal forest in eastern North America (Gamache and Payette 2005570). Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp. Keogh, M.E., and T.E. The indirect impacts are those where climate change impacts and land degradation are separated in time and/or space. Acad. Afforestation/ reforestation on degraded lands can increase carbon stocks in vegetation and soil, increase carbon sinks (Amichev et al. Conversion of primary forests in regions of very low stand-replacing disturbances to short-rotation plantations where the harvested wood is used for short-lived products with low displacement factors will increase emissions. Environ. 20161220; Tengberg et al. 20161297). 2012365; Bai et al. Steward, P.R. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Few studies have specifically addressed the impacts of proposed land-based negative emission technologies on land degradation. (ed.)]. NFPP and GFGP have dramatically improved China’s land conditions and ecosystem services, and thus have mitigated the unprecedented land degradation in China (Liu et al. Science, 349, 819–822, doi:10.1126/science.aaa9092. 20171419). Agron., 87, 85–156, doi:10.1016/S0065-2113(05)87003-8. et al. Curr. Lett., 2, 226–232, doi:10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00067.x. Young, 2000: Land Resource Potential and Constraints at Regional and Country Levels. In: Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories of the IPCC, [Hiraishi T., T. Krug, K. Tanabe, N. Srivastava, B. Jamsranjav, M. Fukuda, and T. Troxler (eds.)]. Astrup, R., P.Y. Land degradation has been treated in several previous IPCC reports, but mainly as an aggregated concept associated with GHG emissions, or as an issue that can be addressed through adaptation and mitigation. Tu, S., F. Xu, and J. Xu, 2018: Regime shift in the destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the western North Pacific. Eng. – Wind and Water Weathering Of Soilif(typeof __ez_fad_position!='undefined'){__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-bettermeetsreality_com-small-rectangle-2-0')}; The basic factors causing soil erosion-induced degradation are wind and water erosion ( ommegaonline.org), Wind and water weathering removes small amounts of the top soil from farming land, – Deforestation, Logging & Clearing Of Land. Environ. Moreover, assessments of climate benefits of any mitigation action must also consider the time dynamics of atmospheric impacts, as some actions will have immediate benefits (e.g., avoided deforestation), while others may not achieve net atmospheric benefits for decades or centuries. Green, A.J. Syst., 90, 405–416, doi:10.1007/s10457-015-9863-1. Byers, M., and N. Dragojlovic, 2004: Darfur: A climate change-induced humanitarian crisis? 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To arid and semiarid grazing systems, just as two examples of UGI implementation as result! And extreme climatic events ( high agreement )., 97, doi: Zulu, L.C Aila.

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